Jerryline T. Wonde
Student at the Cuttington University Graduate School of Global Affairs and Policy
Background
Civil war in Liberia claimed the lives of almost 150,000 civilian and led to a complete breakdown of law and order. It displaced scores of people both internally and beyond the borders, resulting in some 850,000 refugees in the neighboring countries. Fighting began in the late 1089, and by early 1990, several hundred deaths had already occurred in confrontations between government forces and fighter who claimed membership in an opposition group, the National Patriotic Front of Liberia (NPFL), led by a former government official, Mr. Charles Taylor. (Accord issue (1) Civic Initiatives in the peace process October 1996.
From the outset of the conflict, the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) a sub-regional organization, undertook various initiatives aimed at achieving a peaceful settlement. ECOWAS member states during that comprise Benin, Burkina- Faso, Cape Verde, Cote d’ Ivoire, Gambia, Guinea, Guinea- Bissau, Liberia, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, Nigeria, Senegal, Sierra Leone, and Togo. ECOWAS initiative included the creation of a Military Observer Group. (ECOMOG) in August 1990. The group initially comprised about 4,000 troops from Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Nigeria, and Sierra Leone. Although the president of Liberia, Mr. Samuel K. Doe, had agreed to accept ECOMOG, as did Mr. Prince Johnson, the leader of an NPEL faction challenging the leadership of Samuel K. Doe, Mr. Taylor opposed the ECOMOG intervention On 10September 1990, President Doe was killed after having been taken prisoner by Johnson’s forces. The following year, in June 1991 former supporters of the late president were to create another group, the United Liberation Movement of Liberia for Democracy (ULIMO)
Other ECOWAS efforts to achieve a peaceful settlement in Liberia included the mediation of a series of agreements, which became the basis for the peace plan of November 1990, including the establishment of an Interim Government of National Unity (IGNU). Dr. Amos Sawyer was inducted into office as the President of the Interim Government. On 30 October 1991, ECOWAS brokered the Yamoussoukro IV Accord, which outlined steps to implement the peace plan, including the encampment and disarmament of warring factions under the supervision of an expanded ECOMOG, as well as the establishment of transitional institutions to carry out free and fair elections. In line with Liberia’s Post- War Recovery August 18, 2003
The UN & Security Council Intervention
The United Nations supported the efforts of the ECOWAS member States through humanitarian assistance provided to the affected areas in Liberia through coordinated activities of the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), the United Nations Population Fund, the United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF), the World Food Programme (WFP) and the World Health Organization (WHO). The United Nations Special Coordinator’s Office (UNSCOL) opened in December 1990; its operation, initially focusing on the desperate situation in the Monrovia area, was expanded in 1991 to respond to the needs of Liberians throughout the country. Regional arrangements were also made to assist those who fled to the neighboring countries, mainly Guinea, Côte d’Ivoire, and Sierra Leone.
The Council commended the efforts of the ECOWAS heads of State and called upon the parties to the conflict to respect the ceasefire agreement. On 7 May 1992, the Council again commended ECOWAS and indicated that the Yamoussoukro IV Accord offered the best possible framework for a peaceful resolution of the conflict in Liberia.
On 19 November 1992, the Security Council, by adopting resolution 788 (1992), imposed a general and complete embargo on all deliveries of weapons and military equipment to Liberia, except for those destined for the sole use of the peacekeeping forces of ECOWAS.
On 20 November 1992, the Secretary-General appointed Mr. Trevor Livingston Gordon-Somers (Jamaican) as his Special Representative for Liberia. Following his appointment, the Special Representative visited Liberia as well as Benin, Burkina Faso, Côte d’Ivoire, Gambia, Guinea, Nigeria, Senegal, and Sierra Leone. The Secretary-General reported to the Security Council on 12 March 1993, outlining three areas in which the United Nations could play a role in Liberia: political reconciliation, humanitarian assistance, and electoral assistance.
On 26 March, the Security Council, by resolution 813 (1993), requested the Secretary-General to consider the possibility of convening a meeting of the Liberian parties to reaffirm their commitment to the implementation of the Yamoussoukro IV Accord, and also to discuss with ECOWAS and the parties concerned, the contribution which the United Nations could make in support of the Yamoussoukro IV Accord, including the deployment of United Nations observers.
On the morning of 6 June 1993, nearly 600 Liberians, mainly displaced people, including children and the elderly, were killed in an armed attack near Harbel, Liberia. The Security Council strongly condemned the killings and warned that those responsible would be held accountable for the serious violations of International Humanitarian Law. It requested the Secretary-General to commence an investigation into the massacre.
After a preliminary investigation by his Special Representative, the Secretary-General, on 7 August, appointed a Panel of Inquiry composed of Mr. Amos Wako of Kenya as Chairman, and Mr. Robert Gersony of the United States and Mr. Mahmoud Kassem of Egypt as members, to undertake a more comprehensive investigation. In a report dated 10 September 1993, the Panel concluded that the killings were planned and executed by units of the military arm of IGNU, the Armed Forces of Liberia (AFL), and that the NPFL, to which the act of violence had initially been attributed, had no role in it. The Panel named three AFL soldiers who had participated in the massacre and recommended that criminal investigations be undertaken with a view to prosecuting them. In line with UN Security Council 18, August 2003
The Cotonou Peace Agreement
In July 1993, a three-day meeting was held in Cotonou, Benin, under the co-chairmanship of the Secretary-General’s Special Representative, President Canaan Banana of the Organization of African Unity (OAU), and Mr. Abass Bundu, Executive Secretary of ECOWAS. At the conclusion of the meeting on 25 July, IGNU, NPFL, and ULIMO signed the Cotonou Peace Agreement. The Agreement laid out a continuum of action, from the ceasefire through disarmament and demobilization to the holding of national elections.
On military aspects, the Agreement provided for a ceasefire to take effect on 1 August 1993 and outlined steps for the encampment, disarmament, and demobilization of military units. To ensure no violation of the ceasefire between 1 August and the arrival of some 4,000 additional ECOMOG troops, including from OAU countries outside the West African subregion, as well as the main body of a United Nations observer contingent, the parties agreed to establish a Joint Ceasefire Monitoring Committee, comprising representatives of the three Liberian sides, ECOMOG, and the United Nations.
On the political side, the parties reaffirmed the Yamoussoukro IV Accord. They agreed that there should be a single Liberian National Transitional Government, which would have three branches: Legislative, Executive, and Judiciary. The Agreement also provided for general and presidential elections to take place within 7 months from the signing of the Agreement and set out the modalities for the elections to be supervised by a reconstituted Electoral Commission.
On humanitarian issues, the parties agreed that every effort should be made to deliver humanitarian assistance throughout Liberia using the most direct routes and under inspection to ensure compliance with the embargo provisions of the Agreement. The United Nations, in particular the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), was requested to facilitate the speedy return of refugees and their reintegration into their communities. In line with Cotonou Agreement July 25, 1993
**The Establishment of UNOMIL
On 10 August 1993, the Security Council, through Resolution 856, authorized the Secretary‑General to dispatch an advance team of 30 United Nations military observers to Liberia. Subsequently, on 22 September 1993, Resolution 866 established the United Nations Observer Mission in Liberia (UNOMIL) for an initial period of seven months to work alongside ECOMOG in implementing the Cotonou Peace Agreement. UNOMIL was the first UN peacekeeping mission undertaken in cooperation with a regional force. It was placed under the authority of the Secretary‑General, led in the field by his Special Representative, and composed of both military and civilian components. The Chief Military Observer reported directly to the Secretary‑General through the Special Representative.
On 9 September 1993, the Secretary‑General emphasized to the Security Council that ECOMOG’s cooperation was critical to UNOMIL’s success. He warned that failure to deploy additional troops or a premature withdrawal would jeopardize the peace process and signaled that, under such circumstances, he might recommend UNOMIL’s withdrawal. A formal agreement defining the relationship between UNOMIL and ECOMOG was concluded in November 1993.
Although financing ECOMOG was not a UN responsibility, the Secretary‑General proposed a trust fund to support African countries contributing troops, as well as to assist with humanitarian relief, elections, and demobilization. With Security Council endorsement, steps were taken to establish the fund.
UNOMIL’s military component was tasked with monitoring compliance with the ceasefire, enforcing the arms embargo, and overseeing cantonment, disarmament, and demobilization. The Secretary‑General estimated that 303 military observers would be required, organized into 41 teams for field investigations and stationed at headquarters and regional offices. Additional support included a military medical unit and a communications unit.
The civilian component comprised political, humanitarian, and electoral staff. Electoral assistance involved observing and verifying the entire process, from voter registration to polling, carried out by international staff and UN Volunteers. Responsibility for organizing elections rested with the transitional government through the Liberian Elections Commission. Elections were initially scheduled for February/March 1994. Following Resolution 856, the advance party of observers began arriving in Liberia. The Chief Military Observer arrived on 10 October 1993, and by mid-December, 166 UNOMIL military observers were deployed. In line with 36 United Nation Observer in Liberia
**Joint-Ceasefire Monitoring Committee
The Joint Ceasefire Monitoring Committee, chaired by the United Nations on 13 August 1993, was tasked with monitoring, investigating, and reporting ceasefire violations from the time the ceasefire took effect on 1 August until the arrival of additional ECOMOG troops and the full UNOMIL contingent. Alongside regular patrolling, UNOMIL observers conducted reconnaissance missions with ECOMOG across Liberia to prepare for deployment and eventual disarmament and demobilization.
On 17 August 1993, five members of the Council of State were selected following consultations among the Liberian factions. Their swearing‑in was delayed, however, pending the start of disarmament, which under the Cotonou Agreement depended on ECOMOG’s expansion and the provision of detailed information on combatants, weapons, and mines.
Further consultations were convened by ECOWAS Chairman President Nicéphore Soglo of Benin in Cotonou from 3 to 5 November 1993. At this meeting, the parties agreed on the distribution of 13 of 17 cabinet posts, while the remaining portfolios and other transitional government issues were deferred. An agreement was also reached on the composition of the Elections Commission, the Speaker of the Legislature, and members of the Supreme Court.
On 13 December, the Secretary‑General reported to the Security Council that preparations for disarmament and demobilization, undertaken by UNOMIL in cooperation with Liberian parties, ECOMOG, UN agencies, and NGOs, were well advanced. The actual commencement of disarmament, however, was delayed pending the deployment of additional ECOMOG troops. He acknowledged that the timetable, which called for disarmament to begin within 30 days of the Agreement alongside the installation of the transitional government, was highly ambitious given the complexities of establishing the joint UNOMIL/ECOMOG mission.
**The Consolidated Inter-Agency Appeal & New Talks
On 16 December 1993, the United Nations launched a Consolidated Inter‑Agency Appeal for $284 million to support Liberia’s transition from war to peace. Priority needs of $96.41 million were identified for the first quarter of 1994, but renewed hostilities later forced a reduction of the overall appeal to $168.4 million, reflecting limits on rehabilitation activities.
That same month, Liberian factions resumed negotiations on the transitional government but failed to agree on the allocation of four key ministerial portfolios, Defense, Foreign Affairs, Justice, and Finance, or on the timetable for seating the government and beginning disarmament.
By early January 1994, UNOMIL had reached its authorized strength and began deploying military observers across Liberia. Reinforcements from Tanzania and Uganda joined ECOMOG in Monrovia and prepared for operations in the northern and eastern regions. With their arrival, consultations on disarmament intensified. Ten encampment sites were identified, two for the AFL, four for the NPFL, and four for ULIMO, and the parties agreed to begin simultaneous disarmament over a two‑to‑three-month period. UNOMIL also developed a plan for the demobilization and reintegration of ex-combatants, coordinated with UN agencies and NGOs.
On 15 February 1994, the factions resolved most outstanding issues and set 7 March as the date for both disarmament and the installation of the transitional government. Elections were scheduled for 7 September 1994, though the cabinet portfolios remained unresolved. The Security Council welcomed the agreement but cautioned that international support depended on tangible progress and adherence to the revised timetable.
On 7 March 1994, the Council of State of the Transitional Government was formally installed in Monrovia. Three demobilization centers, one for each faction, opened the same day. Shortly after, the Transitional Legislative Assembly was inducted, with ULIMO selecting the Speaker, and the Supreme Court convened its 1994 term on 14 March. June 19, 2003 Joint Monitoring Committee (JMC).
**The Disarmament Commencement
By April 1994, UNOMIL had deployed military observers to 27 of 39 planned sites, supported by four regional headquarters in Monrovia, Tubmanburg, Gbarnga, and Tapeta. Observers patrolled border crossings, monitored disarmament and demobilization, and investigated ceasefire violations. ECOMOG forces were also deployed in Tubmanburg and Gbarnga, though insecurity prevented operations in Upper Lofa. In the southeast, deployment was hindered by the activities of the Liberian Peace Council, which had emerged after the signing of the Cotonou Agreement. UNOMIL and ECOMOG engaged in consultations with ULIMO, NPFL, and LPC to secure further deployment in these contested regions.
At the time, the total number of combatants across factions was estimated at 60,000. During the first month of disarmament, more than 2,000 fighters from all sides were disarmed and demobilized. Following these deployments, the Joint Ceasefire Monitoring Committee was replaced by a Violations Committee, chaired by UNOMIL’s Chief Military Observer, as stipulated in the Cotonou Agreement.
On 21 April 1994, the Security Council was informed that Liberia had designated ministers for Defence, Finance, and Justice, with the Foreign Affairs portfolio to follow. In response, the Council extended UNOMIL’s mandate until 22 October 1994, noting that a review would be conducted in May to assess whether the transitional government was fully installed and whether meaningful progress had been made in implementing the peace process.
**Conflict Amid Disarmament
The Security Council pressed Liberian factions to establish the transitional government by 18 May 1994, ensuring the full seating of the Cabinet and the Transitional National Assembly to enable a unified civil administration and preparations for elections scheduled for 7 September. On 20 April, the Council of State was installed, and the Ministers of Justice, Defense, and Finance were confirmed, with the Foreign Affairs portfolio expected to follow in May.
At the same time, internal divisions within ULIMO erupted between Chairman Alhaji Kromah (Mandingo) and General Roosevelt Johnson (Krahn) over nominations to the Council of State, sparking fighting in the western region. Clashes also broke out in the east between the NPFL and the Liberian Peace Council (LPC). UNOMIL, ECOMOG, and the transitional government attempted to broker ceasefires and integrate LPC into the disarmament process, but violence persisted. A brief ceasefire agreed on 6 May collapsed, and heavy fighting resumed on 26 May, with LPC continuing attacks against NPFL.
Mistrust deepened as ULIMO and LPC abducted Nigerian and Ugandan soldiers, accusing ECOMOG of losing neutrality. NPFL further alleged collusion between elements of ECOMOG and the AFL in supplying LPC. These tensions undermined peacekeeping efforts, and factions refused to disarm or relinquish territory. Three months into demobilization, only 3,192 fighters had disarmed, while insecurity hindered full deployment of UNOMIL and ECOMOG.
On 24 June, the Secretary‑General warned the Security Council that UNOMIL’s role was critical to implementing the Cotonou Agreement and achieving reconciliation. He urged greater cooperation among factions and stressed that elections could only proceed if commitments were honored, cautioning that UN involvement might be reconsidered otherwise. On 13 July, the Council called for a meeting by 31 July to devise a realistic disarmament plan and deadline, but the government failed to comply.
By July and August 1994, the situation deteriorated further. Fighting continued between ULIMO’s Krahn and Mandingo factions in the west and between LPC and NPFL in the southeast. Signs of division within NPFL leadership compounded command and control problems across factions, fueling banditry and harassment of civilians, NGOs, and UN observers. Disarmament nearly ceased, elections became uncertain, and displacement in the southeast and west escalated with each new wave of violence. ECOMOG remained underdeployed, and UNOMIL withdrew from the western region due to insecurity. On 26 August, the Secretary‑General informed the Security Council that he would dispatch a fact-finding mission to assess conditions and recommend future UN actions
**The Akosombo Agreement
On 7 September 1994, ECOWAS Chairman President Jerry Rawlings of Ghana convened a meeting of Liberia’s warring factions at Akosombo. Attendees included the NPFL, both ULIMO factions, and the AFL, while the LPC and Lofa Defence Force declined to participate. Representatives of the United Nations and the OAU acted as facilitators. The talks concluded on 12 September with the signing of a supplementary agreement to the Cotonou framework, reaffirming it as the sole basis for peace. The agreement strengthened the transitional government’s supervisory role, allowed factions to review their appointees to the Council of State, and expanded the Transitional Legislative Assembly by adding thirteen county representatives.
The Akosombo Agreement called for an immediate ceasefire, outlined responsibilities for disengagement and disarmament, and scheduled elections for October 1995. It authorized the transitional government, in collaboration with ECOMOG, to enforce compliance if factions violated its terms, and required a status‑of‑forces agreement with ECOWAS. However, controversy quickly engulfed the accord, and implementation stalled.
Renewed fighting displaced nearly 200,000 people, while insecurity crippled relief operations. Supplies could not move across borders, leaving thousands without aid, and most humanitarian activities ceased outside Buchanan and Monrovia. Continued violence also hampered UNOMIL, whose observers were harassed and, on 9 September, detained by NPFL elements along with NGO staff at nine sites in northern and eastern Liberia. Their equipment was confiscated, though thirty-three observers were released on 14 September after intensive negotiations.
On 14 October 1994, the Secretary‑General reported to the Security Council that Liberia faced a desperate political, military, and humanitarian crisis. He urged factions and the transitional government to pursue accommodation to prevent further collapse. To explore options for renewed international support, he dispatched a high-level mission to consult ECOWAS states and recommended extending UNOMIL’s mandate for two months to allow time for the mission’s work and conclusions.
**The Extension of UNOMIL Terms of Operations
On 21 October 1994, the Security Council adopted Resolution 950, extending UNOMIL’s mandate until 13 January 1995. By mid‑1994, humanitarian needs were immense: 1.5 million people required aid, of whom 1.1 million were reached, while 400,000 remained inaccessible due to fighting. Of those assisted, 800,000 were displaced, including 150,000 newly uprooted in the preceding six months. Although 70 percent of food needs were mobilized, the organized repatriation of 700,000 refugees stalled as the peace process faltered. UNHCR nonetheless supported spontaneous returns, averaging 1,000 people per month from Guinea, Côte d’Ivoire, and Sierra Leone.
By August, the number in need had risen to 1.8 million, with relief confined largely to Monrovia and Buchanan. On 12 November, the UN Resident Coordinator reported that 700,000 civilians in rural Liberia and 1.2 million in Monrovia and Montserrado were affected, but insecurity prevented significant aid delivery. By the end of November, donors had met only 49 percent of the $168.4 million requested in the Consolidated Appeal.
Resolution 950 also endorsed the Secretary‑General’s proposal for a high-level mission to consult ECOWAS states on Liberia’s deteriorating situation. Led by Lansana Kouyaté, Assistant Secretary‑General for Political Affairs, the mission visited Ghana, Côte d’Ivoire, Nigeria, Liberia, Guinea, and Sierra Leone. Consultations were held with ECOWAS leaders, including President Rawlings of Ghana, President Conté of Guinea, Chairman Strasser of Sierra Leone, President Konan Bédié of Côte d’Ivoire, and the ECOWAS Committee of Nine, as well as Liberia’s Council of State, diplomatic missions, UN agencies, NGOs, and faction leaders meeting in Accra.
The mission recommended that Liberian leaders accept political accommodation or risk losing international support; that ECOWAS convene an extraordinary summit to harmonize policies; that ECOMOG be strengthened and restructured with broader African participation; that international financial and logistical support be secured for ECOMOG; and that UNOMIL’s future depend on progress in these areas, with its mandate extended only three months beyond January 1995.
On 21 December, the factions signed two agreements in Accra. One clarified the Akosombo Agreement, while the other brought in non-signatories such as ULIMO‑Johnson, LPC, LDF, CRC‑, NPFL, and the Liberian National Conference. Together, these became known as the Accra Agreement. It mandated a ceasefire effective 28 December 1994, the installation of a five-member Council of State within two weeks, and elections on 14 November 1995, with a new government to take office on 1 January 1996.
Meanwhile, the Secretary‑General announced that Special Representative Trevor Gordon‑Somers would complete his assignment and appointed Anthony B. Nyakyi of Tanzania as his successor. Nyakyi assumed duties in Monrovia on 28 December 1994
UNOMIL New Extension
The Security Council extended the mandate of UNOMIL until 13 April by its resolution 972 (1995) of 13 January. In accordance with the timetable set out in the Accra agreement, the Liberian parties were to have nominated a new five-member Council of State by 11 January 1995. However, when they met in Accra under the auspices of ECOWAS on 9 January, they were unable to reach an agreement on the composition and chairmanship of the Council. The main bottleneck was the inability of AFL and Coalition forces (ULIMO-J, LDF, LPC, and CRC-NPFL) to reach an agreement on their joint nominee. Nominees from the other parties included Mr. Charles Taylor, President of NPFL; Mr. Alhaji Kromah, Chairman of ULIMO-K; and Mr. Oscar Quiah, representative of LNC.
By resolution 972 (1995), the Security Council requested the Secretary-General to report on the role of UNOMIL and of ECOMOG in Liberia and the resource requirements of ECOWAS States to maintain their troops in ECOMOG. The Secretary-General dispatched a small technical team to Monrovia, which held detailed consultations from 6 to 10 February 1995. ECOMOG informed the technical team that its strength was about 8,430 troops, organized in 10 self-contained infantry battalions. The Government of Nigeria contributed the bulk of the force (4,908), while troops were also provided by the Governments of Ghana (1,028), Guinea (609), the United Republic of Tanzania (747), Uganda (760), and Sierra Leone (359). Smaller contingents were also provided by Gambia (10) and Mali (10).
The New Inter-Agency Consolidated Appeal
On 3 February, the Secretary-General launched an inter-agency consolidated appeal for Liberia, for the six-month period January to June 1995, seeking the $65 million in extrabudgetary resources required by United Nations agencies to continue to carry out life-saving interventions in a number of key emergency sectors.
On 24 February 1995, the Secretary-General advised the Security Council that, because of the security situation, the 78 military observers and seven paramedical staff serving with UNOMIL were deployed only in the greater Monrovia area, including Buchanan and Kakata. Two months after the signing of the Accra Agreement, the Liberian factions and political leaders were still haggling over the composition and chairmanship of the Council of State and had yet to show that they were genuinely committed to the fulfilment of their obligations under the Agreement. Moreover, their inability to re-establish a ceasefire verification committee threatened the already fragile ceasefire.
In its resolution 972 (l995), the Security Council expressed the hope that the member States of ECOWAS would convene a summit with a view to harmonizing their policies on Liberia, including tightening the application of the arms embargo. Meeting in Copenhagen on 11 March 1995, the Secretary-General and President Rawlings agreed that the summit should take place as soon as possible and should bring together the heads of State of the ECOWAS Committee of Nine and also involve the leaders of the Liberian parties.
On 13 April, the Security Council, by its resolution 985 (1995), decided to extend the mandate of UNOMIL until 30 June 1995 and urged all Liberian parties to implement the Akosombo and Accra Agreements. The Council urged all States, and in particular all neighboring States, to comply fully with the embargo on all deliveries of weapons and military equipment to Liberia imposed by resolution 788 (1992), and to that end decided to establish a Committee of the Security Council, consisting of all the members of the Council, to monitor and help improve the embargo’s effectiveness, and to recommend measures in response to violations.
In the meantime, the Third Meeting of Heads of State and Government of the ECOWAS Committee of Nine on Liberia was held at Abuja from 17 to 20 May 1995. The meeting was also attended by representatives of the United Nations, OAU, and the United States. The following Liberian parties sent their delegations: AFL, LNC, LPC, NPFL, CRC-NPFL, ULIMO-K, and ULIMO-J. Mr. Kpomakpor, the Chairman of the Council of State, also participated in the meeting. Delegations of all the Liberian factions except the NPFL were headed by their respective leaders.
Despite four days of discussions and the emergence of a substantial measure of agreement on nearly all the outstanding issues, the Liberian parties were unable to reach a final agreement on the composition of the Council of State. In the meantime, fighting in Liberia continued between ULIMO-K and ULIMO-J in Grand Cape Mount and Bomi counties; between NPFL and ULIMO-K in Lofa county; between NPFL and ULIMO-J in Bong and Margibi counties; and between NPFL and LPC in Grand Bassa and Maryland counties. Several towns changed hands, and there were reports of human rights abuses as combatants moved into or out of a particular area. All this resulted in a continued influx of displaced persons into the ECOMOG-controlled areas of Buchanan and Kakata. Contending factions continued to block access routes into inhabited areas, resulting in the disruption of the delivery of relief supplies and unnecessary suffering of civilians. Because of the unstable security situation, ECOMOG’s deployment remained restricted to the central region and to some areas of the western region. United Nations military observers were co-deployed with ECOMOG in Buchanan, Kakata, and Monrovia.
The Extension of UNOMIL Mandate
On 10 June 1995, the Secretary-General recommended to the Security Council the extension of UNOMIL’s mandate for a period of three months. He called on the Liberian faction leaders to do all they could to “give peace a chance, to save innocent civilians from death and suffering, and to avoid the continuing destruction of Liberia as a result of their inability to settle their differences”. By its resolution 1001 (1995) of 30 June, the Security Council extended UNOMIL’s mandate until 15 September 1995 and declared that unless serious and substantial progress was made towards a peaceful settlement, the Mission’s mandate would not be renewed.
On 28 and 29 July in Accra, the ECOWAS Heads of State adopted a resolution stating that the withdrawal of UNOMIL would compromise the efforts made by ECOMOG and affect the situation in the sub-region. They called on the Security Council to review its decision to withdraw UNOMIL from Liberia if the peace process had not progressed significantly. The Chairman of ECOWAS then convened a meeting of the Liberian factions at Abuja from 16 to 19 August. The leaders of all the parties, as well as Chief Tamba Taylor, representing the traditional chiefs, attended the meeting. Representatives of the Nigerian Government, the Eminent Person of OAU for Liberia, and the Secretary-General’s Special Representative were also present as facilitators.
After four days of intensive discussions, the Abuja talks culminated on 19 August 1995 in the signing by the Liberian parties of an agreement, amending and supplementing the Cotonou and Akosombo accords, as subsequently clarified by the Accra agreements. In accordance with provisions of the Abuja Agreement, a comprehensive ceasefire was established on 26 August at midnight, and a new six-member Council was installed on 1 September, one day ahead of schedule. The Council comprised Mr. Wilton Sankawolo as its Chairman; Dr. George Boley, representing the coalition of LPC, CRC-NPFL, and LDF; Mr. Alhaji Kromah of ULIMO; Mr. Oscar Quiah of LNC; Chief Tamba Taylor; and Mr. Charles Taylor of NPFL. AFL was given the defence portfolio, while General Roosevelt Johnson’s wing of ULIMO (ULIMO-J) was given several ministerial posts. The new Council of State would remain in power for one year, until the holding of elections on 20 August 1996. The Agreement also included a schedule of implementation and a formula for the distribution of government posts.
The ECOWAS & UN Preparations
An ECOWAS delegation visited Liberia from 25 to 27 August to assess the situation on the ground and confirmed that the factions had sent instructions to their forces to lay down arms and observe the ceasefire. In the meantime, UNOMIL and ECOMOG began active preparations for the implementation of the Agreement. The Ceasefire Violations Committee, chaired by UNOMIL and consisting of ECOMOG and representatives of the transitional government and the factions, met at the beginning of September to review with the factions plans for monitoring the ceasefire and the implementation of the other provisions of the Agreement, including disarmament and demobilization. A Disarmament Committee, chaired by ECOMOG and comprising UNOMIL, the transitional government, and representatives of the armed factions, with the participation of the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC), was established to draw up plans for the disengagement of forces, disarmament, and the exchange of prisoners of war. The international community was urgently requested to provide support for ECOMOG as well as for the disarmament, demobilization, and reintegration of combatants.
**Humanitarian Situation and Peace Prospects
Negotiations between UNOMIL, ECOMOG, and faction leaders in 1995 achieved a breakthrough by opening critical roads, including those linking Kakata to Gbarnga and Kakata to the Bong Mines. These routes had been cut off for years, isolating communities and preventing aid delivery. Their reopening allowed United Nations agencies and NGOs to reach populations in central and northern Liberia that had been previously inaccessible. Relief operations expanded in areas under ECOMOG control, where security was relatively stable, but large parts of the country remained beyond reach. In Lofa County and the southwest, logistical difficulties and the absence of credible security guarantees continued to block sustained humanitarian activity.
On 13 September 1995, the Secretary‑General reported to the Security Council that prospects for peace were better than at any time since the outbreak of the civil war. He stressed, however, that responsibility for reconciliation lay primarily with Liberia’s leaders. He recommended extending UNOMIL’s mandate until January 1996 and identified several critical elements for success: rebuilding the economy and infrastructure, strengthening governmental institutions, and disarming and demobilizing an estimated 50,000 to 60,000 combatants, a quarter of whom were children. Reintegration into civilian life was essential to prevent renewed violence. He also noted that Liberia’s police force lacked the capacity to maintain law and order, requiring technical and logistical assistance.
**Adjustments to UNOMIL and ECOMOG Mandates
The Security Council extended UNOMIL’s mandate and, through Resolution 1020 of November 1995, adjusted its concept of operations. UNOMIL’s functions were broadened to include monitoring compliance with ceasefires, verifying disarmament and demobilization, supporting humanitarian assistance, investigating human rights violations, and observing elections scheduled for August 1996. This expansion reflected lessons learned since UNOMIL’s establishment in 1993 and the need for closer coordination with ECOWAS.
ECOMOG’s responsibilities were also redefined. The force was tasked with monitoring Liberia’s borders and entry points to prevent arms smuggling, assembling and disarming combatants, establishing checkpoints to verify the movement of weapons, assisting in refugee and IDP returns, and conducting intensive patrols to build confidence for elections. Operationally, ECOMOG divided Liberia into three sectors, with brigade headquarters in Gbarnga, Greenville, and Tubmanburg, while the overall force headquarters remained in Monrovia. By October 1995, ECOMOG had 7,269 troops, but plans were made to expand to 12,000 to meet the demands of disarmament and security. Nigeria pledged two additional battalions, while Ghana and Guinea offered one each, though further contributions depended on financial and logistical support.
**Renewed Instability
Despite these institutional adjustments, implementation of the Abuja Agreement fell behind schedule. Ceasefire violations persisted, with intermittent fighting between ULIMO factions led by Alhaji Kromah and Roosevelt Johnson, as well as clashes between LPC and NPFL, and between NPFL and ULIMO‑K. In December 1995, heavy fighting erupted in Tubmanburg when ULIMO‑J attacked ECOMOG positions, resulting in casualties among combatants and civilians.
Tensions escalated further in March 1996 when the transitional government issued a warrant for Roosevelt Johnson’s arrest. On 6 April, an attempt by the national police, backed by NPFL and ULIMO‑K forces, to detain him triggered widespread violence in Monrovia. Johnson’s forces, supported by AFL fighters, resisted, and the confrontation spiraled into chaos. Law and order collapsed as fighters from all factions looted businesses, United Nations offices, and homes. Buildings were set ablaze, vehicles commandeered, and civilians caught in the crossfire. More than half of Monrovia’s 1.3 million residents were displaced, with thousands fleeing to neighboring countries. UNOMIL evacuated most personnel, though a small team remained to support political efforts.
**Ceasefire and Continued Challenges
A ceasefire was arranged on 19 April 1996, with ECOMOG deploying in central Monrovia to establish checkpoints and patrols as fighters withdrew. UNOMIL also patrolled the city, monitored military developments, and convened meetings of the Ceasefire Violations Committee. However, fighters continued to move freely, and the ceasefire collapsed on 29 April. ECOMOG withdrew to defensive positions, maintaining enough presence to deter further attacks.
On 21 May, the Secretary‑General reported to the Security Council that insecurity in Monrovia and across Liberia severely limited UNOMIL’s ability to implement its mandate. Nevertheless, UNOMIL continued to support ECOWAS mediation efforts. Resolution 1059 (1996) extended UNOMIL’s mandate until 31 August and demanded full implementation of the Abuja Agreement. By late May, ECOMOG reported that 70 to 80 percent of NPFL and ULIMO‑K fighters had left Monrovia, though many remained in surrounding areas. ULIMO‑J and LPC fighters claimed their designated withdrawal zones were insecure, complicating redeployment. Some fighters surrendered arms to ECOMOG, but many remained in Monrovia, unarmed but still present.
**Political Developments
On 3 September 1996, Ruth Perry was inducted as Africa’s first female Head of State, marking a historic milestone. The Council of State reconvened on 10 September and established committees to oversee elections, restructure security forces, and monitor implementation of the Abuja Agreement. Despite these efforts, mistrust among faction leaders persisted. On 31 October, an apparent assassination attempt on Charles Taylor at the Executive Mansion killed five people, including his aide. The incident deepened divisions within the Council of State, which did not meet again until January 1997.
**Human Rights Monitoring
UNOMIL’s adjusted mandate emphasized human rights monitoring. Reports documented killings by NPFL fighters in Tapeta, executions of LPC combatants accused of indiscipline, and harassment of civilians in Grand Bassa and River Cess counties. In Tubmanburg, ULIMO‑J fighters used civilians as human shields, and a mortar strike on the government hospital killed and injured many.
The Sinje massacre of September 1996 was particularly shocking. Civilians were subjected to decapitation, castration, blunt trauma, and gunshot wounds. UNOMIL, working with the Ministry of Justice, ECOMOG, and national human rights groups, investigated the atrocity and determined that rogue ULIMO fighters carried it out. The incident underscored the persistent brutality of Liberia’s conflict and the urgent need for accountability.
The New York Consultation and Liberia’s 1997 Elections
On 6 and 13 May, informal consultations were held in New York with the participation of ECOWAS member States and major donors to discuss preparations for the proposed reconvening at the ministerial level of the Special Conference to Support the Peace Process in Liberia. At those consultations, a consensus emerged that security conditions in Liberia were conducive to the holding of elections and that the objective was to hold credible, free, and fair elections at the earliest date that was technically feasible. It was recognized, however, that it was no longer technically feasible to hold elections on 30 May and that a credible electoral calendar needed to be established.
An Extraordinary Summit Meeting of the ECOWAS Committee of Nine on Liberia was convened in Abuja on 21 May to decide on the date of the Liberian elections, as well as on the electoral law and the budget. The Summit Meeting approved the electoral law as amended by the political parties. It also approved the extension of the tenure of the Liberian Council of State until the inauguration of the new Government.
The Summit decided on an effective extension of the electoral schedule by some 60 days, that is, that the election for the legislative assembly and the presidency should take place on 19 July, with the new Government to be inaugurated on 2 August. However, should a run-off election for the presidency be necessary, it would be held on 2 August, with the inauguration of the new Government taking place on 16 August.
UNOMIL Leadership & Security Conditions
Mr. Anthony Nyakyi ended his assignment as the Special Representative of the Secretary-General for Liberia on 16 April 1997. He was succeeded by Mr. Tuliameni Kalomoh (Namibia), who arrived in Monrovia on 28 April. Reporting to the Security Council on 19 June on the latest developments, the Secretary-General observed that the peace process in Liberia was approaching its culminating stage, the holding of free and fair elections for a new, democratically elected Government. He warned, however, that the timetable for the remaining phases of the process was “uncomfortably tight” and that the electoral calendar established by the Liberian Independent Elections Commission would require the closest possible cooperation and coordination among all the actors involved.
On 27 June 1997, the Security Council decided to extend the mandate of UNOMIL until 30 September 1997, in the expectation that it would terminate on that date.
On the military side, the situation was characterized by relative peace and stability throughout Liberia, and the country was considered secure enough for elections to take place nationwide. Although a few minor incidents continued to occur in various parts of the country, ECOMOG was able to control the security situation effectively in all cases.
Since the end of the official disarmament period on 9 February 1997, a total of 132 ex-fighters had disarmed voluntarily at Rivercess, Grand Kru and Grand Gedeh counties where disarmament could not take place earlier because of the inaccessibility of these areas. As at 13 June, the cumulative total of arms and ammunition recovered and verified by military observers was 10,036 weapons and more than 1.24 million assorted pieces of ammunition, while approximately 3,750 weapons had been reported surrendered to ECOMOG outside the official disarmament sites. In addition, ECOMOG cordon-and-search operations led to the recovery of approximately 3,500 weapons and 150,000 pieces of ammunition.
UNOMIL and ECOMOG continued to make their own preparations for the elections. The electoral unit of UNOMIL was strengthened. By June 1997, UNOMIL had completed its planned deployment at 16 sites, covering all the 13 counties of Liberia. The field stations established during the disarmament process were successfully converted into electoral observation bases. Each of these bases was manned jointly by one or two civilian electoral observers and four or five military observers. Preparations were underway to deploy the 200 additional United Nations observers to observe the election itself. At the same time, ECOMOG continued to receive additional troops and to extend its presence, thus ensuring continued security and encouraging the civilian population to move freely throughout the country. ECOMOG deployment in areas along the borders with the neighbouring countries also encouraged some refugees to return to those areas, albeit in small numbers. ECOMOG’s strength stood at approximately 11,000 troops deployed at 48 different locations.
Disarmament Completion & New Consolidated Inter-Agency Appeal
Following the completion of the disarmament and demobilization exercise and the deployment of ECOMOG to most parts of the country, relief organizations were able to operate in all 13 counties of Liberia. While access had expanded, humanitarian needs had not decreased. Throughout the country, the humanitarian community was encountering damaged infrastructure and resident populations badly in need of the most basic assistance — food, shelter, health, water and sanitation, education, and agriculture. he United Nations Humanitarian Assistance Coordination Office reported that out of the 368 pre-war public and private health facilities, only 25 per cent were functioning; the Monrovia water supply was operating at less than 10 per cent of its capacity; access to safe drinking-water in rural Liberia stood at less than 12 per cent; access to proper sanitation in rural Liberia stood at one per cent; and 60 per cent of children of school age were not in class.
A key humanitarian challenge was also the repatriation of what UNHCR estimated to be 660,000 refugees in the subregion and the resettlement of 750,000 internally displaced persons. The United Nations and non-governmental organizations were responding in their respective areas of expertise. Humanitarian activities were generally of two types, of which the first comprised activities undertaken in response to acute crises. The second type of intervention included more forward-looking activities that would meet immediate needs while preparing for rehabilitation activities. UNHCR continued to prepare for and facilitate voluntary repatriation.
A United Nations consolidated inter-agency appeal for Liberia was launched in December 1996, requesting $31.2 million for priority humanitarian interventions. Implementation of bridging activities continued and had produced short-term employment or training opportunities for some 15,000 demobilized ex-combatants out of the 21,315 demobilized during the disarmament and demobilization exercise. A similar number of civilians were also engaged by these community-based, labor-intensive projects, which covered a broad range of activities, including public works, support for small-scale quick-impact enterprises, strengthening of capacities and infrastructure in the health and education sectors, civic education, counselling, and skills development.
The entire electoral process was organized and conducted by the Liberian Independent Elections Commission, with the assistance of UNOMIL, ECOMOG, the European Union (EU), and the International Foundation for Electoral Systems, which, in a coordinated effort, pooled their logistical, communications, and transport resources as well as their technical expertise to support the process. States members of ECOWAS, OAU, UNDP, donor countries, and the Liberian Council of State provided financial, material, and technical assistance.
Establishment of the Joint-Electoral Commission Mechanism of ECOWAS
The Joint Electoral Coordination Mechanism of ECOWAS and the United Nations, which was established before the elections, greatly assisted in the harmonization of electoral preparations. The Joint Mechanism held regular meetings with the Independent Elections Commission and key operational actors in order to keep the electoral process on track and to ensure that operational requirements were met. The United Nations and ECOWAS jointly certified the voter registration and the election results through the Joint Mechanism.
A total of 13 political parties fielded candidates for the presidential and legislative elections. The parties started their electoral campaigning on 16 June 1997 as scheduled under the electoral calendar. The campaign was conducted without major incidents of violence or intimidation, and the Liberian people were able to associate themselves with political parties of their choice. The Independent Elections Commission, having investigated the few incidents reported to it, determined that there was no evidence to suggest organized or widespread acts of violence or intimidation.
The final result of the election was announced on 24 July, giving the National Patriotic Party (NPP) 75.3 per cent, the Unity Party (UP) 9.5 per cent, and the All-Liberia Coalition Party (ALCOP) 4 per cent of the national vote. The Alliance and United People’s Party (UPP) each received approximately 2.5 per cent, while the remaining eight parties received less than 2 per cent of the vote each. Voter turnout for the election was approximately 85 per cent of registered voters.
Mr. Charles Ghankay Taylor was elected President, and his National Patriotic Party won 21of the 26 Senate seats, and 49 of the 64 seats in the House of Representatives. UP led the opposition with three and seven seats in each chamber, respectively. ALCOP entered, and subsequently withdrew, a formal complaint about irregularities in the conduct of elections in three counties and the allocation of seats, the modalities of which had previously been agreed upon by all the political parties and which were provided for in the electoral law.
On 30 July 1997, the Security Council, in a Presidential statement, welcomed the successful holding of presidential and legislative elections in Liberia and noted with satisfaction the declaration in the Joint Certification Statement by the Secretary-General and the Chairman of ECOWAS that the electoral process was free, fair, and credible, and that the outcome of the elections reflected the will of the Liberian voters.
The Council congratulated the people of Liberia on the courage and determination they had shown in proceeding with the elections under difficult circumstances. It commended all international personnel, especially those of UNOMIL and ECOMOG, who contributed to the successful holding of elections. The Council further noted that the successful conclusion of the electoral process marked the fulfilment of a key element of the UNOMIL mandate.
On 2 August 1997, Mr. Taylor was inaugurated as President of Liberia, and Mr. Enoch Dogolea as Vice-President. In his inaugural address, the President emphasized reconciliation, the protection of human rights, national unity, and the urgent need for the reconstruction of Liberia’s shattered economy, infrastructure, and institutions. The President paid tribute to the role played by ECOWAS and ECOMOG in bringing peace to Liberia and to the contribution made by the United Nations and the wider international community.
Following his inauguration, President Taylor formed a new Government and announced a policy of reconciliation and national unity. The Government began to establish and consolidate its authority throughout the country, and a reconstituted Supreme Court was sworn in. Superintendents were appointed for all 13 Liberian counties, and the Liberia National Police is preparing to reopen police stations across the country.
The electoral process and the installation of a democratically elected Government constituted the last item on the revised schedule of implementation of the Abuja Agreement under the ECOWAS peace plan for Liberia. Thus, UNOMIL’s principal objective was successfully achieved.
UNOMIL Departure & New Trends
By mid-September, the Mission had closed all its field offices and withdrawn all personnel and assets to Monrovia in readiness for its departure from Liberia. Nearly all military observers had been repatriated. However, it was decided to retain nine military observers until 30 September, in connection with the joint ECOMOG/UNOMIL custody of the approximately 10,000 weapons and 1.24 million pieces of ammunition surrendered by factional fighters during the disarmament and demobilization exercise. My Special Representative requested ECOWAS to discuss with the Government of Liberia the post-UNOMIL custody arrangements and the final disposal of the weapons. [The destruction of arms and ammunition collected during the disarmament process was completed by the Government of Liberia, in cooperation with ECOMOG and the United Nations, on 19 October 1999.]
In his final report on UNOMIL submitted to the Security Council on 12 September, the Secretary-General stated that to the extent that the ultimate success of the peace process was due to the cooperation established between ECOWAS and its peacekeeping force, ECOMOG, the United Nations and its observer mission, UNOMIL, and bilateral and multilateral donors, the operation deserved further study. The lessons learned in UNOMIL and their application to current and possible future missions of a similar kind should be carefully examined.
On 3 August 1997, the Special Envoy of the Secretary-General, Assistant Secretary-General for Political Affairs Ibrahima Fall, and the Secretary-General’s Special Representative for Liberia, Tuliameni Kalomoh, were received by President Taylor. The President emphasized the importance of encouraging reconciliation, protecting human rights, establishing a broad-based and inclusive Government, and undertaking the task of national reconstruction. President Taylor requested the assistance of the United Nations in mobilizing international support for the reconstruction of his country. He expressed his desire for a continued United Nations presence following the termination of the UNOMIL mandate on 30 September.
On 2 September, the Secretary-General’s Special Envoy and my Special Representative for Liberia held follow-up discussions with President Taylor regarding arrangements for a continued United Nations presence in Liberia following the withdrawal of UNOMIL. President Taylor reiterated his support for such a presence and welcomed the Secretary-General’s proposal to establish a small United Nations office in Liberia. The head of this office would be the focal point for post-conflict peace-building activities of the United Nations in Liberia and have overall authority for coordination of the United Nations system in the country.
In November 1997, the Security Council established a post-conflict, peace-building support office in Liberia. Headed by a Representative of the Secretary-General, the United Nations Peace-building Support Office in Liberia (UNOL) was intended to strengthen and harmonize United Nations peace-building efforts, to help promote reconciliation and respect for human rights, and to help mobilize international support for reconstruction and recovery of the country.
Conclusion
The Liberian peace process was long, complex, and fraught with setbacks, yet it ultimately demonstrated the critical importance of sustained regional and international engagement in resolving protracted civil conflicts. Beginning with the outbreak of war in 1989, Liberia endured years of devastation, with nearly 150,000 civilian deaths, mass displacement, and the collapse of state institutions. The interventions of ECOWAS and its military arm, ECOMOG, marked the first significant regional attempt to stabilize the conflict. Despite accusations of bias and operational challenges, ECOWAS provided the framework for dialogue, ceasefire monitoring, and transitional governance.
The United Nations complemented these efforts by mobilizing humanitarian assistance, imposing arms embargoes, and establishing UNOMIL—the first UN peacekeeping mission to operate alongside a regional force. UNOMIL’s mandate to monitor ceasefires, verify disarmament, and support elections was ambitious, and its effectiveness was often constrained by insecurity, factional mistrust, and limited resources. Nevertheless, its presence lent legitimacy to ECOWAS’s initiatives and underscored the necessity of international oversight.
Peace agreements such as the Yamoussoukro IV Accord, the Cotonou Agreement, and the Akosombo Agreement reflected repeated attempts to bring warring factions into a political settlement. Each accord faced difficulties in implementation, with disarmament delayed, transitional governments contested, and humanitarian crises worsening. Yet these agreements laid the groundwork for eventual progress by establishing mechanisms for ceasefire monitoring, transitional governance, and electoral preparation.
The Accra Peace Accord represented the culmination of these efforts. It consolidated earlier frameworks, reaffirmed commitments to disarmament and democratic transition, and provided for international oversight of elections. The successful holding of elections in 1997, despite logistical and humanitarian challenges, marked a turning point. Charles Taylor’s victory and the installation of a new government fulfilled the final stage of the Abuja and Accra frameworks, closing the chapter on years of interim arrangements.
The Liberian case illustrates several key lessons. First, regional organizations such as ECOWAS can play a decisive role in conflict resolution, particularly when international actors are slow to intervene. Second, the partnership between ECOWAS and the United Nations demonstrated the value of combining regional legitimacy with international resources and oversight. Third, peace processes must address not only military and political dimensions but also humanitarian needs, reintegration of combatants, and the rebuilding of institutions. Finally, the persistence of mistrust, factionalism, and human rights abuses throughout the process underscores the fragility of peace agreements and the need for continuous monitoring and support.
In sum, the road to the Accra Peace Accord was marked by repeated failures and renewed violence, but it ultimately succeeded because of the sustained commitment of regional and international actors, the resilience of the Liberian people, and the recognition that peace required both political compromise and humanitarian relief. The experience offers enduring lessons for future peace operations: that durable peace is possible only when military disengagement, political reconciliation, humanitarian recovery, and institutional rebuilding are pursued together under coordinated international and regional leadership
Note: This essay is in partial fulfilment of the concepts and Theory of International Relations Course at Cuttington University Graduate School of Global Affairs and Policy tought by Dr. Akiah P. Glay demonstrated by Cllr. Phil Tarpeh Dixon
References
United Nations Security Council. (1995). Resolution 1020 (1995). United Nations Digital Library. https://digitallibrary.un.org
United Nations Security Council. (1996). Resolution 1059 (1996). United Nations Digital Library. https://digitallibrary.un.org
United Nations Security Council. (1996). Resolution 1071 (1996). United Nations Digital Library. https://digitallibrary.un.org
United Nations Security Council. (1997). Resolution 1083 (1996). United Nations Digital Library. https://digitallibrary.un.org
United Nations. (1997). Final report of the United Nations Observer Mission in Liberia (UNOMIL). New York: United Nations.
